It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. The impact of colonialism in Nigeria could be discussed under political, economic, social, educational and religious aspects. Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . Ist October, 2010, marks The 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from imperial Britain. [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. The exploitation of the women's work led to resistance movements and led the women to develop more political awareness and engage in and aid existing decolonization movements. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". The essential basis of this system was a money economyspecifically the British pound sterlingwhich could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the Nigerian Union of Teachers; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by Obafemi Awolowo. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. The British had participated in it until human trafficking was abolished in 1807. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". Gandhi. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. [52], The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct". In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . Chapter 2 argues that following the transformation of the Northern Nigerian region by the Sokoto Jihad in the nineteenth century, Islamic structures provided the crucial structural and ideological frameworks on which the British colonial administrative system was rationalized in the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in the first half of the twentieth century. [] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. Strategic Theory, Dynamics, Methods and Movements ), contains accounts of the role of nonviolent action in anti-colonial struggles in Africa - Algeria, Ghana, Mozambique, and Zambia - and also in Bangladesh. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, led his army to accomplish this unique feat in March 1896, defeating General Oreste Baratieri's Italian . [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Although per capita income in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Ouidah (now part of Benin) and Lagos were the major ports on the coast. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. [53] The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (18981914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. Beginning in the 1920s, a number of Nigerians joined other Blacks in various parts of the world to embark on the wider project of Pan-Africanism, which sought to liberate Black people from racism and European domination. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. The early resistance to colonialism in Africa began in the late 19th century with the increasing unrest in East Africa and several organized groups. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the Nigerian Police Force. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources. British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. The European struggle to establish forts and trading posts on the West African coast from about the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s was part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. Libyan Resistance. In the south the British occasionally created a political hierarchy where there had been none before; in most cases they ruled through those who were most malleable, whether these people had held traditional positions of authority or not. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule. WORKING PAPER: Passive and Active Resistance to Openness - 4 can also resist fulfilling the spirit of FOIAs in a more passive or subtle manner. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Resistance movements began to rise in . Jaja of Opobo allied with hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British colonialists in the Niger Delta states. Years of colonial rule yieleded system w/ all-powerful central government surrounded by weak and economically insolvent states. Britain outlawed slavery in 1807 and pushed for forms of "legitimate commerce" such as palm oil and cotton, and in so doing developed an internal infrastructure to facilitate these markets. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. [65], Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. Economic Impact The [] 3 The Amakholwa's upsurge as a black, conservative, and educated class in the Cape Colony helped establish political resistance to colonial rule. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. [79][80], Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). In 1900, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate passed from company hands to the Crown. In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. [63], The Protectorate was centrally administered by the Colonial Civil Service, staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staffmany of whom originated from outside the territory. Between 1919 and 1954 the title reverted to governor. [46] Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The British answered this activity by attempting to create a more representational colonial system. B. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. The growth of Islam in pre-colonial Igbomina / Adesina Yusuf Raji. A.J. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. Nigeria Lugard and Indirect Rule. In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . Although Nigeria came under the British charter in 1885 and was . By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. [73] An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulersthe system was modified to fit the needs of each region. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Du Bois. Progressive constitutions after World War II provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. 1960-1966: Early diplomatic relations. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. Among the problems needing attention before the British would grant full independence was the minorities fear of discrimination by a future government based on majority ethnic groups. This led to protests known as Women's War. This primary resistance was not unified and centered, yet it allowed understanding that the colonial rule and the presence of Europeans in Africa were negative (Chamberlain 89). By the 1950s, there were organized nationalist parties that demanded political independence in almost every colony in Africa. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. Throughout this period of reign, many changes were made to their . Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan, but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval. Ajay. Early on in colonial rule, for example, Nigerians protested the manner in which water rates and head taxes were collected. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor-General and his appointed Executive Council, the so-called Richards Constitution (after Governor-General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. [36], The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. In the 1850s, quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.[12]. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. [50] In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Lagos remained the capital of the south, with Zungeru the new capital of the north. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. On 9 May 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF Nigeria Regiment.[62]. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. Nigeria is a country in West Africa and was colonized by the British. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. In the South, only English had official status. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. 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