117. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. 110. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. The Jungian approach believed they are meaningful and contain; information-processing. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). 127. Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. 73. 55. 124. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Time course of foslike immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. 7. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. As mentioned above, Plato, preceding by twenty four centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, believed that "forbidden" dreams, such as incestuous or criminal dreams, were only a way of doing incestual sex or killing someone without punishment. 23. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. A regular oscillation modulates the amplitude of the potentials. Foulkes D. Children's dreams. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. 38. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. Problems with Physiological function Theory This does In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. 58. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). 114. Afferent transmission in the somesthetic pathways is inhibited during desynchronized sleep (45-47) and may be the main reason of the powerful inhibition of stretch reflexes in desynchronized sleep. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. 102. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. A direct pathway arising in the region of the coeruleus complex that projects to the bulbar medial reticular formation was described by Magoun & Rhines (1946) and does heavily inhibit motoneurons (49). One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. In fact, all the phases of wakefulness and sleep, including desynchronized sleep, occur in the cerebellar cortex. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). 74. Science 1966;153:206-8. 69. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. 100. Nat Rev Neurosci. Lucrce. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. In: Pompeiano, O. 76. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. 19. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. 1. Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. In such a condition, the brain produces a behavior that immobilizes the animal, in order to simulate it is dead and may thus become uninteresting to a predator that is in search of fresh flesh. Roffwarg et al. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. 51. In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. They include facilitation of memory storage, WebAbstract. (eds. Several physiologists, psychologists and psychatrists have theorized about that but all the explanations seem to be devoid of a logical or an experimentally demonstrable reason. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. Vertes RP. WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. Kluger J. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. What is the Jouvet M. The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. 121. Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. 52. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. Physiol., Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1972:166-307. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. 65. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. Kohyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Nikami T, yamaki T, Veda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Timo-Iaria C, Negro N, Schmidek WR, Rocha TL, Hoshino K. Phases and states of sleep in the rat. Narcolepsy. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. Generally, in humans oniric activity is expressed as eye movements, what is obviously linked to vision as the main human sensory channel. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. NeuroReport 1995;6:532-6. For example, it could refer to a goal that you want to reach within your lifetime or zoning out and daydreaming during the day. 85. Lesion of the alpha coeruleus nucleus impairs the tonic motor inhibition; lesion of the pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus impairs the phasic motor inhibition (58,59). Physiology and Psychology. Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). In some animals, however, a reduction of heart rate and respiration may occur, what also happens during an attentive wakefulness if they are threatened. C R S Soc Biol (Paris) 1964;158:99-103. Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand 119. Candia et al. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. While Freud makes many intuitive In rats bilateral lesion of the midbrain reticular formation is followed by a long lasting state of synchronized sleep, with predominance of phase III (Timo-Iaria, Assumpo & Bernardi, unpublished observations). Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. Brain activity during this time keeps us John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. 95. 24. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. Rechtschaffen A, Buchignani C. The visual appearance of dreams. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. sample sales this week nyc, ucsd orthopedic surgery la jolla, Search History, and AP2 mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day memory. The Jouvet M. the role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the post-birth! 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